The initial use of stone by man was limited to domestic use only. This is a solid material that, at the dawn of civilization, helped to obtain food, keep warm and shelter from bad weather. Jasper, agate, rock crystal, and flint were used to make sharp objects in the human household during the Mesolithic. During the Neolithic, man began an active search rocks and mining of stones. These were shallow developments in which both silicas and other hard minerals that had a sharp edge when chipped (nephrite, jadeite) were mined. Then man began to deify stones, endowing them with magical properties. A logical connection emerged between the deification of inanimate objects and the desire to wear at least a small piece of the deity.

Over time, having appreciated the beauty of individual minerals, man began searching for the most beautiful of them. Later, a person will learn to process stones and make jewelry from them. And demand creates supply. Jewelers needed material for their masterpieces, court ladies competed in the beauty of their jewelry, so the extraction of stones and minerals in different countries became more and more active. Indians are considered the first miners of precious stones. In 2000 BC. people already valued emeralds and organized their active mining in the territory of Ancient India and Ancient Egypt. Rubies and sapphires have been known since 600 AD. BC, bringing glory to Sri Lanka. Around the same time, the diamond mines of India became famous throughout the world. Jewelry made from gems was found in the burials of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, which confirms the fact that people have been mining and processing stones for a long time. Wherein, business card Each region had its own gem. If merchants from the East brought diamonds, rubies, and emeralds to Europe, then amber spread in the opposite direction from the territory of the Baltic coast. The whole world learned about the malachite deposits of the Urals in the 18th century.

How were gems mined?

What methods of extracting stones exist? Output of rocks containing precious and semi-precious gems, on or closer to the earth's surface allowed the development of the mining industry. By chipping, blocks of stones are separated from the main rock and delivered to the surface. For this, picks were first used, then jackhammers and explosives. The places where minerals are mined in this way are quarries and mines. If earlier diamonds were mined intuitively, taking into account the experience of finds, now, in order to find diamond deposit, use special equipment and geological exploration. If we are talking about placer deposits, then stones that had already broken off from the main rock (weathered) fell into the rivers with other fragments. To find them, they used the washing method, and they also did this with the help of dredges - special equipment for washing.

More than 100 of the most famous gem deposits are not quite evenly distributed, but are still dispersed around the world. The East is most famous for its mining of precious stones. If we correlate the stones and their deposits, we get the following: India - diamonds, Myanmar - rubies, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka - sapphires, China and Myanmar - jade, Myanmar, Thailand - spinel, Afghanistan, Chile - lapis lazuli, Iran - turquoise , Australia - opals, pearls, sapphires, Madagascar - beryl, Brazil - diamonds, Colombia - emeralds. Russia also has something to be proud of. In the eastern part of the country, diamond, topaz, jade, aquamarine, lapis lazuli and other gems are mined. The Ural Mountains are famous throughout the world for their deposits of emeralds, chrysoberyl, amethyst, rock crystal, jasper and, of course, malachite.

Deposits of precious stones are not bottomless, which is why a scientific approach is used to further search for diamond deposits. So in 1955, the Mir kimberlite pipe was found and the Yakutsk diamond deposit was founded. The city of Mirny, which arose on that site, is called the modern diamond capital of Russia. Now it is home to more than 35 thousand people, most of whom are employed at diamond mining enterprises. The quarry in which precious stones - diamonds are mined - has a depth of 525 m. Such industrial methods are much more more effective methods our ancestors. But at the same time, they are depleting the world’s reserves of stones and minerals at an industrial pace.

At all times of the existence of civilization on Earth, the list of which always consisted of many items, was a sign of wealth. They personified the presence of a high social status. Hundreds of years ago, in some countries there was a law according to which only members of the ruling elite could wear precious jewelry. Today, if a family has a list of precious stones, then it is rich and prestigious.

Russia is a country that occupies a leading position in the sale and extraction of such precious stones. Produced here in a huge number stones intended for making jewelry. Jewelry stones are mainly used:

rubies;
diamonds;
emeralds.

The laws of the Russian Federation clearly and strictly regulate the production and sale of jewelry stones and products.

Existing classification of precious stones

The variety of precious stones made it necessary to classify them. They are divided into several types.

Gems are natural jewelry stones that make up the first type:

alexandrite;
emerald;
chrysoberyl;
euclase;
ruby;
diamond;
sapphire;
noble spinel.

The list of the second group includes varieties of gems:

topaz;
heliodor;
sparrow;
beryl;
aquamarine;
tourmaline (various colors);
zircon;
amethyst;
phenacite;
opal;
hyacinth.

The third included:

amber;
cornelian;
jet;
turquoise;
chrysoprase;
rauchtopaz;
rhinestone;
bloodstone.

Colored minerals and their features

First grade:

malachite;
nephritis;
lapis lazuli;
amazonite;
rhodonite;
aventurine;
granite
chalcedony;
Labrador.

The second class includes minerals whose characteristics are slightly different from the others:

agalmatolite;
ophiocalcite;
selenite;
jasper;
meerschaum;
fluorite

What is the household classification?

This list is meant as a simplified classification. This catalog contains precious and semi-precious stones. They are divided into several varieties.

ruby;
sapphire;
alexandrite;
diamond;
chrysoberyl;
opal;
emerald;
euclase;
spinel.

topaz;
aquamarine;
red tourmaline;
phenacite:
beryl;
demantoid;
opal;
blood amethyst;
almandine;
hyacinth;
zircon.

The list of semi-precious stones includes:

pomegranate;
dioptase;
turquoise;
epidol;
tourmaline;
rhinestone;
rauchtopaz;
chalcedony;
Labrador;
amethyst.

Gemstones have always been distinguished by their expressiveness. These minerals include:

nephritis;
lapis lazuli;
amazonite;
jasper;
spar;
Labrador;
quartz;
Vesuvian;
bloodstone,
nacre;
jet;
amber;
corals.

Stones for jewelry

They have many different classifications. Only certain precious and ornamental stones are taken for work. They are easy to process and can be used to make all kinds of jewelry crafts.

Mineral raw materials are classified according to a number of characteristic features:

origin;
chemical composition;
crystal cell;
dimensions.

For the first time in 1860, a German scientist compiled a classification of jewelry stones. He created a directory that included several classes and groups.

The first had three subclasses. The first included:

diamond;
spinel;
chrysoberyl;
corundum.

The second included:

tourmaline;
pomegranate;
zircon;
topaz;
opal;
beryl.

The third class of steel includes:

kpanit;
axinite;
cordierite;
chrysolite;
Vesuvian;
staurolite;
andalusite;
turquoise;
epidote;
hpastolite.

The second group also has two subclasses.

First subclass:

chalcedony;
quartz;
feldspar;
lapis lazuli;
amber;
fluorite;
diopside;
obsidian.

Second subclass:

hematite;
rhodochrosite;
pyrite;
malachite;
alabaster;
selenite;
marble;
spar;
agalmatolite;
serpentine;
nephritis;
jade.

In 1896, an updated classification of jewelry stones was proposed. It was adopted as a basis and became popular among jewelry makers. Later it was supplemented by Academician Fersman. According to this catalog, a division of jewelry stones took place. They were divided into:

gems;
jewelry ornamental stones of different colors;
natural;
precious;
just ornamental.

At the end of the 19th century, the catalog of minerals consisted of 750 species. Today the list has increased. Now it features 3000 different types minerals. Progress does not stand still, everything moves forward, new views open up.

However, with all the abundance of precious and jewelry items, there are approximately 100. Moreover, only professional craftsmen can name such a number. Ordinary people know about 25 names of jewelry elements.

Minerals, without which jewelry crafts are impossible

To create beautiful decoration or expensive jewel, professionals use:

gems;
colored stones;
artificial minerals.

Gems mean certain types of stones:

ornamental;
mountain;
colored;
precious;
semi-precious.

Each stone has characteristic properties:

transparency;
resistance to aggressive environments;
bright color;
beautiful shine;
light scattering;
possibility of accessible processing.

The most popular gems used for the production of most jewelry crafts are precious minerals. Jewelers most often use emerald, ruby, diamond and sapphire.

Of all the available semi-precious stones, craftsmen use opal, topaz, alexandrite and rock crystal.

These stones have a unique play of light colors, they are easy to process and cut. Inserts are made from them various types jewelry, rings and other products in which precious stones are used.

For thousands of years, certain groups of minerals, considered precious stones, have always been valued. They have always been in high demand. It is from them that jewelers make jewelry and luxury products. Similar stones include:

turquoise;
pomegranate;
quartz;
chalcedony;
jade;
olivine;
amethyst;
centrite;
amazonite;
Moonstone;
nephritis;
tourmaline;
lapis lazuli;
spanel.

Gems tend to be slightly translucent, sometimes they are completely opaque.

Gems contain minerals that give them a beautiful color. For example, malachite has green. This color is produced by 57% copper oxide.

The hardness of ornamental elements is divided by professionals into several groups.
The hardest are:

charoite;
nephritis;
chalcedony;
jasper;
lapis lazuli;
rhodonite;
agate.

Medium-hard ornamental stones include marble, malachite and serpentine.

The softest steels were:

selenite;
anhydrite;
calcite;
gypsum;
soapstone;
alabaster.

Famous jewelry stones

Today there are many different artificial stones. They perfectly imitate natural gems. Of course, you need to be able to distinguish an ordinary glass from a natural semi-precious mineral. To do this, you must, first of all, know what real jewelry and ornaments look like.

It is usually a completely opaque mineral, rock, or organic compound. Semiprecious stone always without shine. However, if it receives a high-quality cut, its beauty will not be inferior to an expensive diamond. Very rare stones are valued at high prices, reaching six figures. The weight of such an original is determined by carats.

Semi-precious stones have special physical characteristics. They can be easily distinguished by measuring density, hardness and cleavage.

The most important difference between these gems is the huge range of colors and numerous shades. Such diversity was provided to them by the chemical composition given by nature. In their composition you can find various oxides of iron, aluminum, magnesium, sodium, copper and even potassium.

These oxides give minerals the most unique shades. Such gems are used as inserts required in luxurious jewelry, and also as raw materials for interior decoration.

Ornamental stones are also divided into several groups. It all depends on the value of the mineral. So there are several groups.

rauchtopaz:
crystal;
amber;
malachite;
jade;
lapis lazuli;
aventurine;
Charoite

chalcedony;
agate;
amazonite;
hematite;
rhodonite;
heliotrope;
opal;
Labrador;
quartz;
obsidian.

jasper;
marble;
jet;
fluorite

Sometimes ornamental stones belonging to the first group are considered third-order precious gems.

The beginning of the mining of precious stones can be considered those distant times when a person first picked up a beautiful transparent stone from the ground or found a piece of orange amber on the seashore.

The extraction of stones begins in the offices of scientists: with the study of rocks, their origin, and analysis of their content. Field exploration is carried out, samples are taken from drilled wells. It happens that mining is carried out simultaneously with exploration. When it becomes clear how much precious material can be mined in a particular deposit, then such a deposit is considered explored, and work on the extraction of jewelry stones can begin.

The method of extracting precious stones depends on the form in which they are found in nature. Stones can lie in deep veins in the parent rock, and there is no way to get to them except underground. This happens quite rarely. Most often, gemstones are found in

placers . They also contain hollow nodules with walls made of chalcedony, lined with crystals on the inside - geodes . From the outside, a geode is no different from an ordinary boulder, and only if you split or saw it, you can find inside the splendor of sparkling crystals: purple amethysts, yellow citrines and other minerals. Opal, chalcedony and agate often form in voids - gas bubbles of basaltic and andesitic lavas.

The parent rock is weathered, eroded, and the rocks it contains accumulate around (

eluvial placers) or are carried away by rainwater and deposited in the soil of rivers, the coastal strip of oceans and seas (alluvial, coastal-marine). Wonderful sapphires, rubies and spinels are found in the pebble placers of Sri Lanka. Coastal oceanic placers on the west coast of Africa, in Namibia, are rich in diamonds, and many tons of sand are washed to extract them. On the Baltic coast, amber washes up in the surf.

Having an overall higher density than the rock-forming minerals, gems carried away by the current settle more quickly as the water flow weakens. There is, one might say, a natural “washing” of precious stones, and in some places quite a lot of them accumulate; even primitive washing of the soil in basins gives good results. However, jewelry stones in placers are not the most High Quality, they are crushed, damaged, rolled around or completely worn out. This is understandable: the stones have traveled hundreds of kilometers, torn from the original,

indigenous deposits to be deposited in the secondary. In the parent rock, the stones are preserved in their original form, and it is in the primary deposits that the best examples of precious stones are mined, but in order to get to them, you need to crush the solid rock and separate the semi-precious raw materials from it. This method is not very productive: you need to remove a lot of waste rock, spend time and effort, this, in turn, leads to an increase in the cost of mining - jewelry stones. This is how diamond mining is carried out on a large scale in our time.kimberlite pipes– tube-shaped bodies of various sizes formed when gases break through the earth’s crust. When viewed from above, the pipe looks like a huge round tapering cone with roads laid along its walls for transporting ore. The kimberlite rock consists mainly of olivine, pyroxenes, pyrope-almandine garnet, and less commonly zircon and apatite. At a depth of several hundred meters from the Earth's surface, the tubes gradually narrow and contain less diamonds. Tubes up to 1.5 km in size (the Mwadui pipe in Tanzania) are of greatest industrial interest. Over 1,500 kimberlite bodies are known, but only a few of them have commercial diamond content (the Premier, De Beers, Kimberly, etc. pipes in South Africa; Majgavan in India; Koidu in Sierra Leone and etc.). In kimberlites, diamonds are distributed unevenly: they are found in single crystals or intergrowths, but nowhere do they form large clusters. It was in South Africa that the world's largest diamond, the Cullinan, was found, originally weighing 3,106 carats (621.2 grams!).

It is considered profitable to develop deposits with a diamond content of about 0.4-0.5 carats/m3 (one carat is equal to 0.2 g). If the pipe contains exceptional quality diamonds, this figure may be lower, and by the end of the pipe the score goes to fractions of a carat per ton. It’s scary to imagine how much diamond-bearing ore needs to be processed so that a jeweler can make a pair of earrings and a ring with diamonds. But, it must be said, some pipes produced significant quantities of diamonds in the middle of the 20th century: “Premier” - about 55 million carats per year, but the average remains at 2 - 2.5 million carats per year.

In Russia, diamond deposits are concentrated in western Yakutia (Mir, Udachnaya, Aikhal pipes, etc.); deposits have been explored in the Arkhangelsk region. Unfortunately, some pipes in Yakutia, such as Mir and Internatsionalnaya, have reached their design depth, and now they will have to switch to underground mining, which is extremely expensive.

Jewelry stones are mined using

underground works , otherwise mining, oropen method- in quarries. Underground work, as already mentioned, is the most expensive and primarily affects the cost of extracted stones. They are produced only if it is known for sure that the rock contains a vein of precious stones. A vein is a mineral body that fills a crack in a rock. In this way, some minerals are also mined along with other minerals, for example, jet, which accompanies coal, or rock crystal and other jewelry-quality quartz found with iron ore. It’s good if associated production is organized at high level, more often it happens that it simply does not exist. Adits are laid in the rock - horizontal or inclined workings, first for exploration, then for development of the deposit. In addition, a network of adits and pits (vertical excavations) is needed for ventilation, transportation, water drainage, etc. It is mandatory to have two exits from underground mines. For all this work, special equipment is used, which costs a lot of money. Therefore, this kind of mining of gems (except, perhaps, diamonds) is unprofitable. Fortunately, it is not suitable for the vast majority of stones that are mined by open-pit mining.

In most countries, especially in African and Asian countries, open-pit mining is carried out using primitive methods (except for diamonds). The easiest open method is to collect gems from the surface of the earth. This is possible in the beds of dry rivers, in rock crevices, on the coast near the surf; some crystals are knocked directly from the rocks, using ordinary hammers, jackhammers, and blasting the rock (amethysts on the White Sea coast). In the river, mining is carried out by washing the soil in baskets and other similar devices by damming the river: the water flows faster, carrying away the soil raised by workers from the bottom. Heavier stones settle to the bottom, and then washing begins. Unfortunately, lighter gemstones such as beryl, tourmaline or quartz are lost in this process. Such gems, which have a density of up to approximately 3 units on the Mohs scale, are extracted from primary deposits, as well as from placers located on the ground or underground. If the placer was formed in ancient times, then it is covered with a multi-meter layer of soil, which must be removed - the deposit must be opened.

Stripping worksmade manually or mechanically. The celestine deposit in Beyneu-Kyr in Turkmenistan, now completely forgotten, is being developed manual labor enthusiasts and mineral lovers.

To remove thicker, loose overburden, scrapers are used (an earth-moving machine that cuts off soil with a bucket and transports it to a dump); conveyor loaders, draglines (a machine with a bucket suspended on a boom); multi-bucket rotary excavators (resembling a water mill that scoops up earth rather than water) and many other unusual equipment. To move waste rocks from a quarry, not only dump trucks and conveyors are used, but also, in some cases, water supplied under high pressure. If the overburden rocks are too strong, they are processed using tractors equipped with rippers or destroyed by drilling and blasting.

The deposit (or formation) is now ready for extraction. The next step is to determine how the development will be carried out. Beautiful ornamental stones are extracted using the burocline method or by manual disassembly. Some quarries use auger units (with a screw for drilling). Sometimes for open-pit mining pneumatic devices such as a jackhammer or hammer drill are used; finishing and ornamental stone is cut into blocks. This takes into account the fragility of the most valuable rocks - mining is carried out without blasting.

In the very center of the Kola Peninsula is the Keiva mountain range, where Ploskaya Mountain is hidden - the world's largest Amazonite deposit. This amazingly colored rock lies in huge layers almost at the surface. But to get to this place, you need to overcome huge areas of swamps on all-terrain vehicles. Helicopters are used to remove the loot. The world's largest deposits of kyanite, garnet (almandine) and staurolite lie there. Of course, there is no equipment there, and the quarries are rarely used by enthusiasts or small groups of workers.

Each country has its own rules regarding exploration and mining rights. In the USA, in the state of Utah, in the famous topaz valley of the Thomas Range, anyone can mine topazes that literally lie there under their feet. Condition: hand tools only. If in Russia the law defines precious stones that cannot be mined without special permission, then, for example, in Mozambique, the mining of gold and precious stones is a way of subsistence for entire villages. Miners in many countries are the poorest people; Whole families work in placer mining. There are deposits in Mozambique

People have been interested in mining semi-precious stones ever since primitive man picked up the first colored pebble in the mountains or found transparent amber on the shore.

Most often, precious stones are mined underground, in mine workings, and less often in open quarries. It also happens that under the influence of erosion, stones are gradually freed from the parent rock and are carried downstream by water flows. In such places, the development of these alluvial deposits is carried out by manual washing, using dredges.

Many gem deposits were discovered by accident. Even today, systematic searches in most areas of the world are limited mainly to diamonds alone.

As for other precious stones, the search for their deposits is usually carried out using the simplest means, without the use of modern technology and in the absence of an appropriate scientific base.

Nevertheless, it is still worthy of surprise with what success local search engines are identifying more and more new deposits. Mining enterprises that exploit deposits of precious stones are called mines, mines or mines.

The methods of extracting precious stones, with the exception of diamonds, are very primitive in most countries; in some areas they are essentially the same as at the dawn of our era. The easiest way is to collect gems located directly on the surface. This is possible in a dry river valley or in rock crevices. Crystals that have grown on the rock are broken off using a hammer and chisel, a pick or a crowbar, as well as pneumatic jackhammers or an explosive method.

The extraction of precious stones from young placers is relatively simple. First of all, the overlying sediments are removed. If the placers lie deep from the surface, then there are pits and shafts, sometimes up to 10 or more meters deep. Simple ceilings protect the mouth of the mine from rain; groundwater seeping from below is scooped out with buckets or pumped out with mechanical pumps. From the bottom of the mine, horizontal underground workings run through the layer of sands carrying precious stones. In the largest production shafts, temporary support is installed.

Sometimes precious stones are even mined directly from the river bed. To do this, the river is artificially dammed in some places so that its waters flow faster. Workers, standing waist-deep in such water, stir up the bottom soil with long poles and rakes. Clay-sand components of the soil, which have a lower density, are carried away with the flow of water, and heavier precious stones remain at the bottom.

Further enrichment of sands extracted from mines or rivers with precious stones is carried out by washing them. Workers fill special baskets with loose rock containing gemstones and shake them in wash pits filled with water. This removes the clay and sand, leaving the heavier gemstones to accumulate in concentrate. Light stones like beryl, feldspar, quartz and tourmaline are, of course, lost with this mining method.

In some countries, hydraulic methods of placer mining are practiced, when loose clastic material is washed off the slopes by strong water jets.
The greatest costs are required for underground mining, in which adits pass through hard rock. They resort to it only in those places where the presence of a vein with precious stones is firmly established.

Theft is a particular problem when mining precious stones. They are dangerous for a mining enterprise primarily because they drive down the price of stones to a lower level than is economically justified.
The ingenuity of thieves in the ways and techniques of stealing precious stones from mines and mines seems inexhaustible. But measures to combat theft are becoming more and more sophisticated. Diamond mines are most reliably guarded.

[In the Soviet Union, the extraction of precious stones is carried out both by large specialized mining and processing plants and by small enterprises; Often production is combined with geological exploration and is carried out directly by geological exploration parties.

In some cases, precious stones are mined as a by-product during the development of deposits of other types of mineral raw materials.

Regarding the rights to exploration and mining of precious stones, and the payment of workers, each country has its own rules. In general, it can be said that in most countries, work in the exploration and mining of precious stones is the lot of poor people.

On the territory of modern Afghanistan, lapis lazuli mines existed 6 thousand years ago, and the famous traveler Marco Polo wrote about this. Persian turquoise, which is considered the best, is brought from Iran. Alluvial deposits are more profitable compared to mountain deposits. Rubies and spinel are mined in this way in Sri Lanka, diamonds in Namibia, and on the Baltic coast. But the stones in placers are not of the best quality, since they are rounded, abraded and damaged in other ways many kilometers from the original deposit.

There are often cases when boulders, inconspicuous at first glance, are hollow from the inside and completely lined with crystals. Such stones are called geodes, and the stones found in them are always better than others in purity and quality. Amethysts and citrines are most often found in geodes.

Extraction methods

Scientists are currently beginning to mine jewelry by studying the origin of rocks and analyzing their contents.

After it is carried out on the ground and samples are taken from drilled wells, a calculation is made of the material to be extracted from the field being developed. After this, the place is considered explored, and work can begin.

In African and Asian countries, all stones, with the exception of diamonds, are mined using a primitive method. In the beds of dry rivers, rock crevices and on the coast near the surf, we can use the simplest type of collection - from the surface of the earth. Crystals are often knocked off rocks using jackhammers and blasting. In rivers, the soil is washed in basket-like devices, but light stones such as tourmaline, quartz and beryl can be lost in the process - they are mainly extracted from the bedrock deposit.

Placers formed in ancient times are covered with multi-meter layers of soil, which are removed manually or mechanically, opening the deposit. In this case, a lot of unusual equipment is used: earth-moving machines that cut off the soil themselves and transport it to dumps (scrapers), conveyor-type loaders, machines with buckets suspended on a boom (draglines). To remove waste rock from quarries, not only dump trucks with conveyors are used, but in some cases also high-pressure water.

Weight loss